A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  I  J  L  M  N  
O  P  Q  R  S  T  U  V  W 

Many students find it helpful to have electronic access to the terms in the Glossary that begins on page 513 of the book. Here are these terms for your use.

A

absenteeism   Failure to report to work. (3)

acceptance theory of authority   The theory that the manager's authority depends on the subordinate's acceptance of the manager's right to give and expect compliance with directives. (12)

accommodation   Occurs when the parties' goals are compatible but the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the goals' attainment. (10)

adhocracy   This structure is typically found in young organizations in highly technical fields. Within it, decision making is spread throughout the organization, power resides with the experts, horizontal and vertical specialization exist, and there is little formalization. (13)

administrative hierarchy   The system of reporting relationships in the organization, from the lowest to the highest managerial levels. (12)

adversarial intervention   Involves a manager listening to both parties present evidence to support their cases and then making a decision. (10)

affect   A person's feeling toward something. (3)

agreeableness   A person's ability to get along with others. (3)

all-channel network   In this type of network, all members communicate with all other members. (7)

applied research   Conducted to solve particular problems or answer specific questions. (1)

assimilation   The process through which a minority group learns the ways of the dominant group. In organizations favouring assimilation, people from diverse backgrounds are expected to change to fit the existing organizational culture.

attitudes   A person's complexes of beliefs and feelings about specific ideas, situations, or other people. (3)

attribution theory   Suggests that we observe behaviour and then attribute causes to it. Also, suggests that employees observe their own behaviour, determine whether it is a response to external or internal factors, and shape their future motivated behaviour accordingly. (3)

authoritarianism   The belief that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organizations. (3)

authority   Power that has been legitimized within a particular social context. (12)

avoidance (negative reinforcement)   The opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behaviour. (4) Occurs when the interacting parties' goals are incompatible and the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the attainment of the goals. (10)

B

basic research   Discovering new knowledge rather than solving specific problems. (1)

behavioural approach   This approach to leadership tries to identify behaviours that differentiate effective leaders from nonleaders. It uses guidelines, suboptimizing, and satisficing in making decisions. (9, 11)

benefits   An important form of indirect compensation. big five personality traits A set of personality traits that are especially relevant to organizations. (3)

bounded rationality   The idea that decision makers cannot deal with information about all the aspects and alternatives pertaining to a problem and therefore choose to tackle some meaningful subset of it. (9)

brainstorming   A technique used in the idea-generation phase of decision making that assists in the development of numerous courses of action. (9)

bureaucracy model   This model, as described by Weber, was an early universal approach to organization structure. In an ideal form, a bureaucracy is logical, rational, and efficient. (1)

burnout   A general feeling of exhaustion that develops when an individual simultaneously experiences too much pressure and has too few sources of satisfaction. (6)

C

career   A perceived sequence of attitudes and behaviours associated with work-related experiences and activities over a person's life. (A)

career advisors and counsellors   These people can help others find and analyze career information, but the ultimate career decision must be made by the individual. (A)

career management   The process of implementing organizational career planning. (A)

career pathing   The identification of a certain sequence of jobs in a career that represent a progression through the organization. (A)

career planning   A system in which individuals evaluate their abilities and interests, consider alternative career opportunities, establish career goals, and plan practical development activities. (A)

career stages   Periods in which the person's worklife is characterized by specific needs, concerns, tasks, and activities. (A)

case study   An in-depth analysis of one setting. (1)

centralization   A structural policy in which decision-making authority is concentrated at the top of the organizational hierarchy. (12)

chain network   In this type of a network, each member communicates with the person above and below but not with the individuals on each end. (7)

change agent   A person responsible for managing a change effort. (15)

channel noise   A disturbance in communication that is primarily a function of the medium. (7)

charisma   A form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance from others. (11)

charismatic leadership   A type of influence based on the leader's personal charisma. (11)

circle network   In this type of network, each member communicates with the people on both sides but with no one else. (7)

classical conditioning   A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus.

classical organization theory   Focused on how organizations can be structured most effectively to meet their goals. (1)

coercive power   The extent to which a person has the ability to punish or physically or psychologically harm someone else. (10)

cognition   The knowledge a person presumes to have about something. (3)

cognitive dissonance   The anxiety a person experiences when he or she simultaneously possesses two sets of knowledge or perceptions that are contradictory or incongruent. (3, 9)

collaboration   Occurs when the interaction between groups is very important to goal attainment and the goals are compatible. (10)

collectivism   The extent to which people emphasize the good of the group or society; compare with individualism. (2)

command group   A relatively permanent, formal group with functional reporting relationships. (8)

communication   The process in which two or more parties exchange information and share meaning. (7)

communication and decision-making stage   A stage of group development in which members discuss their feelings more openly and agree on group goals and individual roles in the group. (8)

communication fidelity   The degree of correspondence between the message intended by the source and the message understood by the receiver. (7)

compensation package   The total array of money (wages, salary, commission), incentives, benefits, perquisites, and awards provided to an employee by an organization.

competition   Occurs when goals are incompatible and the interactions between groups are important to meeting goals. (10)

competitive strategy   An outline of how a business intends to compete with other firms in the same industry. (2)

compressed workweek   A situation in which employees work a full 40-hour week in fewer than the traditional five days. (5)

compromise   Occurs when the interaction is moderately important to meeting goals and the goals are neither completely compatible nor completely incompatible. (10)

conceptual skills   The manager uses conceptual skills to think in the abstract. (2)

configuration   An organization's shape. It reflects the division of labour and the means of coordinating the divided tasks. (12)

conflict   Disagreement among parties. It has both positive and negative characteristics. (10)

conflict model   A very personal approach to decision making. It deals with the personal conflicts people experience in particularly difficult decision situations. (9)

conflict resolution   Occurs when a manager resolves conflict that has become harmful or serious. (10)

conflict stimulation   The creation and constructive use of conflict by a manager. (10)

conscientiousness   The number of goals on which a person focuses. (3)

consideration behaviour   Involves being concerned with subordinates' feelings and respecting subordinates' ideas. (11)

contingency approach   An organization design in which the desired outcomes for the organization can be achieved in several ways. (13)

contingency perspective   Suggests that in most organizations, situations and outcomes are contingent on, or influenced by, other variables. (1)

contingency plans   Alternative actions to take if the primary source of action is unexpectedly disrupted or rendered inappropriate. (9)

continuous improvement   A perspective that suggests performance should constantly be en-hanced.

continuous reinforcement   With this type of reinforcement, behaviour is rewarded every time it occurs.

contributions   An individual's contributions to an organization include such things as effort, skills, ability, time, and loyalty. (3)

control and organization stage   A stage of group development in which the group is mature and members work together and are flexible, adaptive, and self-correcting. (8)

controlling   The process of monitoring and correcting the actions of the organization and its members to keep them directed toward their goals. (2)

cosmopolite   Links the organization to the external environment and may also be the opinion leader in the group. (7)

creativity   A person's ability to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas. (3)

cultural values   The values employees need to have and act on for the organization to act on strategic values. (14)

D

decision making   The process of choosing from among several alternatives. (9)

decision-making roles   There are four basic decision-making roles: the entrepreneur, the disturbance handler, the resource allocator, and the negotiator. (2)

decision rule   A statement that tells a decision maker which alternative to choose based on the characteristics of the decision situation. (9)

decoding   The process by which the receiver of the message interprets the message's meaning. (7)

defensive avoidance   Making no changes in present activities and avoiding any further contact associated with issues because there appears to be no hope of finding a better solution. (9)

deficiency needs   A category in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It includes physiological, security, and belongingness needs. (4)

delegation   The transfer to others of author-ity to make decisions and use organizational resources. (12)

Delphi technique   A method of systematically gathering judgments of experts for use in developing forecasts. (9)

departmentalization   The manner in whichdivided tasks are combined and allocated to work groups. (12)

diagnostic skills   The manager uses diagnostic skills to understand cause-and-effect relationships and to recognize the optimal solutions to problems. (2)

distress   The unpleasant stress that accompanies negative events. (6)

divisionalized form   This structure is typical of old, very large organizations. Within it, the organization is divided according to the different markets served. Horizontal and vertical specialization exists between divisions and headquarters. Decision making is divided between divisions and headquarters, and outputs are standardized. (13)

division of labour   The extent to which the organization's work is divided into different jobs to be done by different people. (12)

downsizing   The process of purposely becoming smaller by reducing the size of the workforce or shedding divisions or businesses. (2)

dual-structure theory   This theory identifies moti-vation factors, which affect satisfaction, as well as hygiene factors, which affect dissatisfaction. (4)

E

effort-to-performance expectancy   A person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance. (4)

employee-centred leader behaviour   Involves at-tempting to build effective work groups with high performance goals. (11)

empowerment   The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority. (5, 14)

encoding   The process by which the message is translated from an idea or thought into transmittable symbols. (7)

entry stage (exploration stage)   Characterized by self-examination, role tryouts, and occupational exploration. (A)

environmental uncertainty   Exists when managers have little information about environmental events and their impact on the organization. (13)

equity   The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others. (4)

equity theory   This theory focuses on people's desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity. (4)

ERG theory   This theory represents an extension and refinement of the need hierarchy theory. It describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs. (4)

escalation of commitment   The tendency to persist in an ineffective course of action when evidence reveals that the project cannot succeed. (9)

establishment stage (setting-down stage)   In this stage, the individual gets more recognition for improved performance. (A)

ethics   Personal beliefs about what is right and wrong or good and bad. (2, 9)

eustress   The pleasurable stress that accompanies positive events. (6)

exit (withdrawal) stage   Pattern of decreasing performance in a career as individuals prepare to move on or retire. (A)

expectancy theory   This theory suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it. (4)

expert power   The extent to which a person controls information that is valuable to someone else. (10)

extinction   Decreases the frequency of behaviour by eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows that behaviour. (4)

extroversion   The quality of being comfortable with relationships; the opposite extreme, introversion, is characterized by more social discomfort. (3)

F

feedback   The process by which the receiver returns a message to the sender that indicates receipt of the message. (7)

field experiment   Similar to a laboratory experiment, but conducted in a real organization. (1)

field survey   Typically relies on questionnaire distributed to a sample of people selected from a larger population. (1)

fixed-interval reinforcement   Provides reinforce-ment on a fixed time schedule.

fixed-ratio reinforcement   Provides reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviours.

flexible reward system   Allows employees to choose the combination of benefits that best suit their needs.

flexible work schedules (flextime)   These schedules give employees more personal control over the hours they work each day. (5)

flextime (flexible work schedules)   See flexible work schedules.

formal group   Formed by an organization to do its work and usually is included in the organization chart. (8)

formalization   The degree to which rules and procedures shape the jobs and activities of employees. (12)

friendship group   A group that is relatively permanent and informal and draws its benefits from the social relationships among its members. (8)

G

gatekeeper   A strategic position in a network that allows a person to control information moving in either direction through a channel. (7)

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)   Identifies three stages of response to a stressor: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. (6)

general environment   This environment includes the broad set of dimensions and factors within which the organization operates, including political- legal, sociocultural, technological, economic, and international factors. (13)

goal   A desirable objective. (5)

goal acceptance   The extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own. (5)

goal commitment   The extent to which a person is personally interested in reaching a goal. (5)

goal compatibility   The extent to which the goals of more than one person or group can be achieved at the same time. (10)

goal difficulty   The extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort. (5)

goal specificity   The clarity and precision of a goal. (5)

grapevine   An informal system of communication that coexists with the formal system. (7)

group   Two or more people who interact with one another such that each person influences and is influenced by the other person. (8)

group cohesiveness   The extent to which a group is committed to staying together. (8)

group composition   The degree of similarity or difference among group members in factors important to the group's work. (8)

group performance factors   The performance factors are composition, size, norms, and cohesiveness. They affect the success of the group in fulfilling its goals. (8)

group polarization   The tendency for a group's average post-discussion attitudes to be more extreme then its average pre-discussion attitudes. (9)

group size   The number of members of the group; it affects the number of resources available to perform the task. (8)

groupthink   A mode of thinking that occurs when members of a group are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group and desire for unanimity offsets their motivation to appraise alternative courses of action. (9)

growth needs   A category in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It includes esteem and self-actualization needs. (4)

H

hardiness   A person's ability to cope with stress. (6)

Hawthorne Studies   Conducted between 1927 and 1932, these studies led to some of the first discoveries of the importance of human behaviour in organizations. (1)

Hersey and Blanchard model   This model of leadership identifies different combinations of leadership presumed to work best with different levels of organizational maturity on the part of followers.

hierarchy of needs   Maslow's hierarchy assumes human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. (4)

human organization   Rensis Likert's organization approach that is based on supportive relationships, participation, and overlapping work groups. (12)

human relations movement   This movement emerged following the Hawthorne Studies. Human relationists believed that employee satisfaction is a key determinant of performance. (1)

hygiene factors   These factors are extrinsic to work itself. They include things such as pay and job security. (4)

hypervigilance   A frantic, superficial pursuit of some satisficing strategy. (9)

I

ideal bureaucracy   Weber's model that is characterized by a hierarchy of authority and a system of rules and procedures designed to create an optimally effective system for large organizations. (12)

impetus   Providing impetus involves the manager providing a strong incentive for the disputents to reach an agreement on their own. (10)

implementation teams   Groups of individuals from various functional groups who are responsible for enacting change in organizations. (8)

impression management   A direct and intentional effort by someone to enhance his or her own image in the eyes of others. (10)

incentive systems   Plans in which employees can earn additional compensation in return for certain types of performance. incubation A period of less-intense conscious concentration during which a creative person is able to let the knowledge and ideas acquired during preparation mature and develop. (3)

individual differences   The personal attributes that vary from one person to another. (3)

individualism   The extent to which people place a primary value on themselves. (2)

inducements   The tangible or intangible rewards organizations provide individuals. (3)

inequity   The belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others. (4)

influence   The ability to affect the perceptions, attitudes, or behaviours of others. (14)

informal group   A group that is established by its members. (8)

informational roles   There are three key informational roles: the monitor, the disseminator, and the spokesperson. (2)

initiating-structure behaviour   Involves clearly defining the leader-subordinate roles so that subordinates know what is expected of them. (11)

innovation   The process of creating and doing new things that are introduced into the marketplace as products, processes, or services. (14)

inquisitorial intervention   Involves a manager soliciting evidence from the disputents and then making a decision. (10)

insight   The stage in the creative process when all the scattered thoughts and ideas that were maturing during incubation come together to produce a breakthrough. (3)

intention   A component of an attitude that guides an individual's behaviour. (3)

interactionalism   Suggests that individuals and situations interact continuously to determine individuals' behaviour. (1)

interest group   A group that is relatively temporary and informal and is organized around a common activity or interest of its members. (8)

interpersonal demands   Stressors associated with group pressures, leadership, and personality conflicts. (6)

interpersonal roles   There are three important interpersonal roles: the figurehead, the leader, and the liaison. (2)

interpersonal skills   The manager uses interpersonal skills to communicate with, understand, and motivate individuals and groups. (2)

intrapreneurship   An entrepreneurial activity that takes place within the context of a large organization. (14)

isolate (isolated dyad)   Tend to work alone and to interact and communicate little with others. (7)

J

jargon   The specialized or technical language of a trade, profession, or social group. (7)

job analysis   The process of systematically gathering information about specific jobs to use in devel-oping a performance measurement system, to write job or position descriptions, and to develop equitable pay systems. ) job-centred leader behaviour Involves paying close attention to the work of subordinates, ex-plaining work procedures, and demonstrating a strong interest in performance. (11)

job characteristics approach   Focuses on the motivational attributes of jobs. (5)

job characteristics theory   Identifies three critical psychological states: experienced meaningfulness of the work, experienced responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of results. (15)

job design   How organizations define and structure jobs. (5)

job enlargement   Involves giving workers more tasks to perform. (5)

job enrichment   Entails giving workers more tasks to perform and more control over how to perform the tasks. (5)

job hopping   Occurs when an individual makes fewer adjustments within the organization and moves to different organizations to advance his or her career. (A)

job rotation   The systematic movement of workers from one job to another in an attempt to minimize monotony and boredom. (5)

job satisfaction   The extent to which a person is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work. (3)

job sharing   A situation in which two or more part-time employees share one full-time job. (5)

job specialization   Advocated by scientific management, it can help improve efficiency but it can also promote monotony and boredom. (5)

L

laboratory experiment   Creating an artifical setting, similar to a real work situation to allow control over amost every possible factor in that setting. (1)

leader-member exchange (LMX) model   This model of leadership stresses that leaders develop unique working relationships with each of their subordinates. (11)

leadership   Both a process and a property. As a process, leadership involves the use of noncoercive influence. As a property, leadership is a set of characteristics attributed to someone who is perceived to use influence successfully. (11)

Leadership Grid   Evaluates leader behaviour along two dimensions—concern for production and concern for people—and suggests that effective leadership styles include high levels of both behaviours.

leadership substitutes   Individual, task, and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader's ability to affect subordinates' satisfaction and performance. (14)

leading   The process of getting the organization's members to work together toward the organization's goals. (2)

learning   A relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential resulting from direct or indirect experience. (4)

learning organization   An organization that works to facilitate the lifelong learning and personal development of all of its employees while continually transforming to respond to changing demands and needs.

least-preferred coworker scale (LPC)   Presumes to measure a leader's motivation. (11)

legitimate power   The power that is granted by virtue of one's position in the organization. (10)

liaison   Serves as a bridge between groups, tying group together and facilitating communication. (7)

life change   Any meaningful change in a person's personal or work situation; too many life changes can lead to health problems. (6)

life trauma   Any upheaval in an individual's life that alters his or her attitudes, emotions, or behaviours. (6)

linking role   A position for a person or group that serves to coordinate the activities of two or more organizational groups. (8)

locus of control   The extent to which a person believes his or her circumstances are a function of either his or her own actions or of external factors beyond his or her control. (3)

LPC theory of leadership   Suggests that a leader's effectiveness depends on the situation. (11)

M

Machiavellianism   A personality trait. People who possess this trait act to gain power and to control the behaviour of others. (3)

machine bureaucracy   This structure is typical of large, well-established organizations. It features a high degree of specialization and formalization. Within this structure, decision making is usually concentrated at the top. (3)

management by objectives (MBO)   A collaborative goal-setting process through which organizational goals cascade down through the organization. (5)

management teams   Consists of managers from various areas; they coordinate work teams. (8)

masculinity   The extent to which the domi-nant values in a society emphasize aggressiveness and the acquisition of money and material goods, rather than concern for people, relationships among people, and the overall quality of life. (2)

mastery stage   Individuals develop a stronger attachment to their organizations and lose some career flexibility, and performance may vary. (A)

matrix design   Combines two different designs to gain the benefits of each. Typically in this design, a product or project departmentalization scheme and a functional structure are combined. (13)

mechanistic structure   This structure is primarily hierarchical. Within it, interactions and communications are typically vertical, instructions come from the boss, knowledge is concentrated at the top, and loyalty and obedience are required to sustain membership. (13)

mediation   Involves the manager assisting the disputants in the resolution of their conflict by controlling the manner in which they interact, but without forcing a solution. (10)

medium   The channel or path through which the message is transmitted. (7)

mentoring   Occurs when an older, more experienced person helps a younger employee grow and advance by providing advice, support, and encouragement. (A)

Michigan leadership studies   These studiesdefined job-centred and employee-centred leadership as opposite ends of a single leadership dimension. (11)

motivation   The set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways. (4)

motivation and productivity stage   A stage of group development in which members cooperate, help each other, and work toward accomplishing tasks. (8)

motivation factors   These factors are intrinsic to work itself. They include things such as achievement and recognition. (4)

motive   A factor that determines a person's choice of one course of behaviour from among several possibilities. (4)

multicultural organization   An organization in which employees of mixed backgrounds, experiences, and cultures can contribute and achieve their full potential for the benefit of both themselves and the organization.

multicultural orientation   One in which em-ployees of mixed backgrounds, experiences, and cultures can contribute and achieve their fullest potential for the benefit of themselves and the organization.

mutual acceptance stage   A stage of group development that is characterized by members sharing information about themselves and getting to know each other. (8)

N

need   Anything an individual requires or wants. (4)

need for achievement   The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than in the past. (5)

need for affiliation   The need for human companionship. need for power The desire to control the resources in one's environment. need theories These theories of motivation assume that need deficiencies cause behaviour. (4)

negative affectivity   People who possess this trait are generally downbeat and pessimistic. They see things in a negative way and seem to be in a bad mood. (3)

negative emotionality   This is characterized by moodiness and insecurity; those who have little negative emotionality are better able to withstand stress. (3)

negative reinforcement (avoidance)   See avoidance. (4)

negotiation   The process in which two or more parties (people or groups) reach agreement even though they have different preferences. (10)

noise   Any disturbance in the communication process that interferes with or distorts communication. (7)

nominal group technique (NGT)   Group members follow a generate-discuss-vote cycle until they reach an appropriate decision. (9)

nonprogrammed decision   A decision that recurs infrequently and for which there is no previously established decision rule. (9)

norm   A standard against which the appropriateness of a behaviour is measured. (8)

O

occupation   A group of jobs that are similar with respect to the type of tasks and training involved. (A)

Ohio State leadership studies   These studies defined leader consideration and initiating-structure behaviours as independent dimensions of leadership. (11)

openness   The capacity to entertain new ideas and to change as a result of new information. (3)

open system   A system that interacts with its environment. (15)

optimism   The extent to which a person sees life in relatively positive or negative terms. (6)

organic structure   This structure is set up like a network. Within it, interactions and communications are horizontal, knowledge resides wherever it is most useful to the organization, and membership requires a commitment to the organization's tasks. (13)

organization   A group of people working together to attain common goals. (12)

organization chart   A diagram showing all people, positions, reporting relationships, and lines of formal communication in the organization. (12)

organization culture   The set of values that helps the organization's employees understand which actions are considered acceptable and which unacceptable. (14)

organization development   The process of planned change and improvement of the organization through the application of knowledge of the behavioural sciences. (15)

organization structure   The system of task, reporting, and authority relationships within which the organization does its work. (12)

organizational behaviour   The study of human behaviour in organizational settings, the interface between human behaviour and the organization, and the organization itself. (1)

organizational citizenship   The extent to which an individual's behaviour makes a positive overall contribution to the organization. (3)

organizational commitment   A person's identification with and attachment to an organization. (3)

organizational downsizing   A popular trend aimed at reducing the size of corporate staff and middle management to reduce costs. (13)

organizational environment   This environment includes all elements that lie outside the boundaries of the organization: for example, people, other organizations, economic factors, objects, and events. (13)

organizational goals   Objectives that management seeks to achieve in pursuing the firm's purpose. (12)

organizational modification   The application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings. organizational politics The activities carried out by people to acquire, enhance, and use power and other resources to obtain their desired outcome. (10)

organizational socialization   The process through which employees learn about the firm's culture and pass their knowledge and understanding on to others. (14)

organizational stressors   Factors in the workplace that can cause stress. (6)

organizational technology   The mechanical and intellectual processes that transform inputs into outputs. (13)

organizing   The process of designing jobs, group-ing jobs into units, and establishing patterns of authority between jobs and units. (2)

outcome   Anything that results from performing a particular behaviour. (4)

overdetermination   Occurs because numerous organizational systems are in place to ensure that employees and systems behave as expected to maintain stability. (15)

P

participation   The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work. (5)

path-goal theory of leadership   Suggests that effective leaders clarify the paths (behaviours) that will lead to desired rewards (goals). (11)

perception   The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about his or her environment. (3)

performance appraisal (performance measurement)   See performance measurement.

performance behaviours   The total set of work-related behaviours that the organization expects the individual to display. (3)

performance measurement (performance appraisal)   The process by which someone (1) evaluates an employee's work behaviors by measurement and comparison with previously established standards, (2) documents results, and (3) communicates the results to the employees.

performance plan   An understanding between an employee and a manager concerning what and how a job is to be done such that both parties know what is expected and how success is defined and measured.

performance-to-outcome expectancy   The individual's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes. (4)

perquisites Special privileges awarded to selected members of an organization, usually top managers. personality The relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another. (3)

personal power   Resides in the person, regardless of the position he or she fills. (10)

person-job fit   The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization. (3)

physical demands   Stressors associated with the job's physical setting, such as the adequacy of temperature and lighting, and the physical requirements the job makes on the employee. (6)

planning   The process of determining an organization's desired future position and the best means of getting there. (2)

position power   Resides in the position, regardless of who is filling that position. (10)

positive affectivity   People who possess this trait are upbeat and optimistic. They have an overall sense of well-being and see things in a positive light. (3)

positive reinforcement   A reward or other desirable consequence that a person receives after exhibiting behaviour. (4)

power   The potential ability of a person or group to exercise control over another person or group. (10)

power distance   The extent to which less powerful persons accept the unequal distribution of power. (2)

practical approach   The approach to decision making that combines the steps of the rational approach with the conditions in the behavioural approach to create a more realistic process for making decisions in organizations. (9)

PRAM model   This model guides the negotiator through the four steps of planning for agreement, building relationships, reaching agreement, and maintaining relationships. (10)

prejudices   Judgments about others that reinforce the belief that some groups are superior toothers and can lead to exaggerating the worth of one group while diminishing the worth of others.

preparation   It is usually the first stage in the creative process. It involves education and formal training. (3)

primary needs   The basic physical requirements necessary to sustain life. problem solving A form of decision making in which the issue is unique and alternatives must be developed and evaluated without the aid of a programmed decision rule. (9)

problem-solving teams   Temporary teams established to attack specific problems in the work-place. (8)

procedural justice   The extent to which the dynamics of an organization's decision making processes are judged to be fair by those most affected by them. (14)

product development teams   Combinations of work and problem-solving teams that create new designs for products or services that will satisfy customer needs. (8)

productivity   An indicator of how much an organization is creating relative to its inputs. (2)

professional bureaucracy   This structure is characterized by horizontal specialization, by area of professional expertise. It features little formalization and decentralized decision making. (13)

programmed decision   A decision that recurs often enough for a decision rule to be developed. (9)

psychological contract   A person's set of expectations regarding what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization, in return, will provide the individual. (3)

punishment   An unpleasant, or aversive, consequence that results from behaviour. (4)

Q

quality   The total set of features and characteristics of a product or service that determine its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. (2)

quality circles   Small groups of employees from the same work area who regularly meet to discuss and recommend solutions to workplace problems. (8)

quality of worklife   The extent to which workers can satisfy important personal needs through their experiences in the organization. (15)

R

rational decision-making approach   A systematic, step-by-step process for making decisions. (9)

receiver   The individual, group, or organization that perceives the encoded symbols and may or may not decode them to try to understand the intended message. (7)

reengineering   The radical redesign of organizational processes to achieve major gains in cost, time, and provision of services. (13)

referent power   Exists when one person wants to be like or imitates someone else. (10)

refreezing   The process of making new behaviours relatively permanent and resistant to further change. (15)

reinforcement   The consequences of behaviour. (4)

reinforcement discrimination   The process of recognizing differences between behaviour and reinforcement in different settings.

reinforcement generalization   The process through which a person extends recognition of similar or identical behaviour-reinforcement relationships to different settings.

reinforcement theory   This theory is based on the idea that behaviour is a function of its consequences. (4)

research design   The set of procedures used to test the predicted relationships among natural phenomena. (1)

reliability   The reliability of a measure is the extent to which it is consistent over time. (1)

responsibility   An obligation to do something with the expectation of achieving some act or output. (12)

reward power   The extent to which a person controls rewards that another person values. (10)

reward system   A system that consists of all organizational components, including people, pro-cesses, rules and procedures, and decision-making activities, involved in allocating compensation and benefits to employees in exchange for their contributions to the organization.

risk propensity   The degree to which a person is willing to take chances and make risky decisions. (3)

role   A set of expected behaviours associated with a particular position in a group or organization. (6)

role ambiguity   Arises when a role is unclear. (6)

role conflict   Occurs when the messages and cues constituting a role are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive. (6)

role demands   Stressors associated with the role a person is expected to play. (6)

role overload   Occurs when expectations for the role exceed the individual's capabilities. (6)

S

satisficing   Examining alternatives only until a solution that meets minimal requirements is found. (9)

scientific management   Popular during the early twentieth century, scientific management was one of the first approaches to management. It focused on the efficiency of individual workers. (1)

scientific research   The systemic investigation of hypothesised propositions about the relationships among natural phenomena. (1)

secondary needs   The requirements learned from the environment or culture in which the individual lives.

selective perception   The process of screening out information with which we are uncomfortable or that contradicts our beliefs. (3)

self-efficacy   A person's beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform a task. (3, 4, 5)

self-esteem   The extent to which a person believes he or she is a worthwhile and deserving individual. (3)

self-reactions   Comparisons of alternatives with internalized moral standards. (9)

semantics   The study of language forms. (7)

short-term orientation   People with a short-term orientation focus on past or present; people with a long-term orientation focus on the future. (2)

simple structure   This structure is typical of relatively small or new organizations. It features little specialization or formalization. Within this structure, power and decision making are concentrated in the chief executive. (13)

socialization   The process through which individuals become social beings. (14)

social learning   Occurs when people observe the behaviours of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behaviour as a result.

social loafing   The tendency of some members of groups to put forth less effort in a group situation than when they are working alone. (8)

social responsibility   An organization's social re-sponsibility is its obligation to protect or contribute to the social environment in which it functions. (2)

sociotechnical systems approach   An approach to organization design that views the organization as an open system structured to integrate the technical and social subsystems into a single management system. (13)

source   The individual, group, or organization interested in communicating something to another party. (7)

span of control   The number of people who report to a manager. (12)

stereotyping   The process of categorizing or labelling people on the basis of a single attribute. (3)

strategy   The plans and actions necessary to achieve organizational goals. (13)

strategic values   The basic belief about an organization's environment that shape its strategy. (14)

stress   A person's adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological or physical demands on that person. (6)

structural change   A systemwide organization development involving a major restructuring of the organization or instituting programs such as quality of work life. (15)

structural imperatives   The three structural imperatives—environment, technology, and size—are the primary determinants of organization structure. (13)

suboptimizing   Knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on other aspects of the organization. (9)

superleadership   Occurs when a leader gradually and purposefully turns over power, responsibility, and control to a self-managing work group. (14)

superordinate goal   An organizational goal that is more important to the well-being of the organization and its members than the more specific goals of interacting parties. (10)

surface value   The objective meaning or worth of a reward to an employee.

symbolic value   The symbolic and personal meaning or worth of a reward to an employee. system A set of interrelated elements functioning as a whole. (1, 13)

T

task demands   Stressors associated with the specific job a person performs. (6)

task environment   This environment includes specific organizations, groups, and individuals that influence the organization. (13)

task group   A relatively temporary, formal group established to do a specific task. (8)

team   A small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, common performance goals, and an approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. (8)

technical skills   The skills necessary to accomplish specific tasks within the organization. (2)

technical (task) subsystem   The means by which inputs are transformed into outputs. (15)

technology   The mechanical and intellectual processes used to transform inputs into products and services. (2)

telecommuting   A work arrangement in which employees spend part of their time working off-site. (5)

third-party conflict resolution   Occurs when a manager atttemps to resolve a dispute between individuals or groups of employees. (10)

Theory X and Theory Y   Two concepts developed by prominent human relations writer Douglas McGregor. Theory X takes a negative and pessimistic view of workers, and Theory Y a morepositive and optimistic perspective. McGregor advocated the adoption of Theory Y. (1)

Total Quality Management (TQM)   The form of management that focuses on the customer, an environment of trust and openness, working in teams, breaking down internal organizational barriers, team leadership and coaching, shared power, and continuous improvement. Use of this approach often involves fundamental changes in the organization's culture.

trait approach   This approach to leadership attempted to identify stable and enduring character traits that differentiated effective leaders from nonleaders. (11)

transformational leadership   The set of abilities that allows the leader to recognize the need for change, to create a vision to guide that change, and to execute that change effectively. (11)

transition management   The process of systematically planning, organizing, and implementing change. (15)

transmission   The process through which the symbols that represent the message are sent to the receiver. (7)

trial stage (socialization stage)   Steps in career when individuals explore jobs and performance begins to improve. (A)

turnover   Occurs when people quit their jobs. (3)

Type A   People who are extremely competitive, highly committed to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency. (6)

Type B   People who are less competitive, less committed to work, and have a weaker sense of time urgency. (6)

Type Z   This type of firm is committed to retaining employees, evaluates workers' performance based on both qualitative and quantitative information, emphasizes broad career paths, exercises control through informal, implicit mechanisms, requires that decision making occur in groups and be based on full information sharing and consensus, expects individuals to take responsibility for decisions, and emphasizes concern for people. (14)

U

uncertainty avoidance   The extent to which people prefer to be in clear and unambiguous situations. (2)

unconflicted adherence   Continuing with current activities if doing so does not entail serious risks. (9)

unconflicted change   Making changes in present activities if doing so presents no serious risks. (9)

unfreezing   The process by which people become aware of the need for change. (15)

universal approach   An organization design in which prescriptions and propositions are designed to work in any circumstances. (13)

V

valence   The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a particular outcome has for a person. (4)

validity   The extent to which a measure actually reflects what it was intended to measure. (1)

variable-interval reinforcement   Varies the amount of time between reinforcements.

variable-ratio reinforcement   Varies the number of behaviours between reinforcements.

verification   The final step in the creative pro-cess, which involves determining the validity or truthfulness of the insight. (3) The feedback portion of communication in which the receiver sends a message to the source indicating receipt of the message and the degree to which he or she understood the message. (7)

vigilant information processing   Involves thoroughly investigating all possible alternatives, weighing their costs and benefits before making a decision, and developing contingency plans. (9)

virtual organization   A temporary alliance between two or more organizations that band together to undertake a specific venture. (13)

virtual teams   Teams that work together by co-puter and other electronic communication utilities; members move in and out of meetings and the team itself as the situation dictates. (8, 12)

Vroom-Yetton-Jago   This model of leadership at-tempts to prescribe how much participation subordinates should be allowed in making decisions. (11)

W

wheel network   In this type of a network, information flows between the person at the end of each spoke and the person in the middle. (7)

workforce diversity   The similarities and differences in such characteristics as age, gender, ethnic heritage, physical abilities and disabilities, race, and sexual orientation among the employees of organizations.

work-life relationships   The interrelationships between a person's work life and personal life. (6)

workplace behaviour   The pattern of actions by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness. (3)

work teams   These include all the people working in an area, are relatively permanent, and do the daily work, making decisions regarding how the work of the team is done. (8)

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